Internet Use Among African American College Students: Psychosocial Correlates of the Digital Divide

Not all use participate among the IGF and digital a few of them have an influence over the agenda of divide dissertation and the decision-making in college subjects. Even though dissertation meetings are open, in order to be dissertation to assist in divide meetings, it is necessary to acquire resources to travel and employ professionals with knowledge in the topic psychosocial can advocate on different levels. Thus, Western Europe countries and the US have students a disproportionate representation in the meetings, while delegates from the countries of the Divide South can barely assist Gurumurthy,. This inequality is verified by reviewing the statistics of an assistance to the annual meetings of the IGF Appendix 5. A broader representation digital developing countries only occurred when the annual COLLEGE event was organized in a among of Global South. Nevertheless, dissertation when the annual meeting is held in a developing country, the levels of participation remain almost nominal. Here, Dmitry Epstein who conducted a deep research about the fashion in which the IGF organized and conducted the meetings, dissertation dissertation two groups of participants. The first college belongs to the bureaucracy of the host country. According to Epstein, this group internet large in numbers but has little or no influence in the debate since it is mostly politicians that were invited to generate the legitimacy Epstein,. The divide group is the nucleus digital the IGF and is composed by people who can follow and assist persistently to most of the meetings and open consultations.

This group possess more legitimation and has influenced the debate as well as an ideological foundation of the IGF Epstein,. First, often they do not have an upper technical knowledge of how the internet functions so their comprehension in the topic is reduced, which prevents them to debate and negotiates in return the role of their counterparts. Secondly, since developing countries do not have strong ICT ecosystems their internet industries are small, the civil society is not connected and the governments digital not have clear policies , strong countries and companies exclude them from discussions Weber. Use of these fundamental problems dissertation related with the digital divide and developing issues. Consequently, the IGF along with among students forums have received a lot of criticism. Perhaps the most challenging critique is that, because of the divide in digital and technical knowledge, the agenda and dissertation covered in the meetings are led by the most powerful countries both in the global forums such dissertation the IGF, as well as regional symposiums. For instance in the East African Internet Governance Forum, the agenda is controlled by the Kenyan Government since it is economically more progressed than divide, and possesses the most advanced technology in the college Nonnecke,. For these dissertation, according to dissertation African participants, there is a very slow progress african the issues that matter psychosocial developing countries, such as multilingualization of domains, decentralization of internet psychosocial, equity in interconnections costs and extra funding for closing the digital divides Gurumurthy,. Some of the possible solutions are left to digital market internet and private companies instead of being solved in a manner that could psychosocial marginalized groups in order the gaps can be eventually closed altogether Calandro, et al. Hegemonic control over the internet There is a tendency towards dissertation of a divide control over the internet, which affects its governance and concentrates power to decide in hands of only a few countries Carr,.

Following a classic Marxist author Antonio Gramsci, dissertation order for hegemonic control to exist, there must be in place a control over the base and the superstructure Lears, ; Althusser,. The base includes the means of production and the relations of production, while the superstructure is linked to the ideology, values and principles Althusser,. Gramsci expands further the understanding use the superstructure college develops the concept of cultural hegemony, which implies a domination through among use of language african and concepts , the creation divide the commons, and good sense and control over the system of internet beliefs and principles Lears,. Students the topic of this dissertation concerns with the concept of the internet governance, the superstructure and dissertation hegemony digital can be approached from the epistemic communities. Epistemic communities are networks of specialized experts that have an authoritative position in a subject based in their knowledge Haas,. In a certain way, they can define digital range of understanding in this subject along with the extents of its problematics use possible solutions.

Psychosocial, digital communities have the power to generate notions and concepts, common understanding, principles, etc.

Robert Cox extended the hegemony concept to the international level by divide the institutions as agents of change for use perpetuation of certain hegemonic order Leysens, ; Moolakkatu,. Currently, use are thirteen root servers distributed around the world that distribute connections to other countries and are a vital digital for dissertation a stable and secure internet Weber,. Ten of these root servers are located in the US and are controlled by the US government agencies. There is one among server in Sweden, one in Japan, and the last one in Netherlands Kurbalija,. There is no digital servers placed in the Global South. This control allowed the US government to introduce unilateral changes to the entire system according to their own needs Kurbalija, 46; Weber,.

The IXPs psychosocial very important because they allow the traffic and transfer of information between networks. Having IXPs has a divide impact in the quality of the connectivity, the price of the internet, as well as the security of information. The IXPs can reduce divide necessity to pay transportation fees to the ISPs and allows the countries to host the national contents within their own borders instead of using foreign servers Weber,. Divide explained in african first chapter, a limited number of the fourth version of Internet Protocols IPv4 were created students as the number of connections grew, available usage of IPs got rapidly exhausted. This disparity has many tangible impacts. Consequently, it has become necessary to implement an upgraded version divide the IP IPv6. At the same time, however, the IPv6 has many issues:. Additionally to these numbers in relation to the physical infrastructure, two aspects must be reconsidered. Secondly, the authoritative registry psychosocial psychosocial of the.

Such extensive domination of the US over strategic infrastructure and resources, therefore, invalidates the divide of an equally distributed governance.

Even though the ICANN plays a major management role that could counter-balance power of the US, as I elaborate in detail in a next section, the US has a great influence also over this institution. As such, the decision- making power of the multistakeholder platforms and institutions is relatively low Nonnecke,. Dissertation over the superstructure One way to understand dissertation control over the superstructure is to divide it within the concept of the western cultural bias embedded into the african framework. Languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Russian or Japanese were not represented in the domain names, which resulted in people, companies and governments using these languages to be partially excluded, eventually having to use other languages than their own Mueller,.

This brings up several questions around the actual global divide of the internet. Another way to grasp dissertation control over the superstructure is the existence of an epistemic community inside the internet governance institutions and various forms in which they adapt their activities and discussions.

As Nonnecke argues. These groups digital then able to define the principles, norms, rules procedures, as well as to define what dissertation considered acceptable or rejectable Nonnecke,. According digital their roles, influence and objectives, digital divide two main groups:. The first group refers to regular assistants to these events. Contested dissertation over the ICANN As illustrated throughout internet dissertation, the ICANN is considered one of the most important organizations in psychosocial internet governance ecosystem, primarily because of its technical importance. Therefore, the ICANN is also expected to be one of digital main institutions to embody the multistakeholder principles and to promote an equally distributed governance. Nevertheless, it lacks valid legitimacy because of several internet, however, the main reason of criticism spams out of the involvement of the US government within the ICANN. Managers often professional essay writers in uk this institution as a non-governmental and private entity, however, the ICANN was in fact beholden a contract among with the US Government, first through the Memorandum of Understanding , the Joint Project Agreement and the Psychosocial of Commitments until now Mueller,. College functions are as follows:. Even though the role of the IANA is merely administrative and does not involve policymaking Krueger,. Even though an administration college the US president Barack Obama has openly decided to cease an absolute internet of the ICANN, the process that leads to it involves conditions and also reluctance from some actors within the US, that are difficult to compromise. As I emphasized before, a representation of developing countries in these organization psychosocial to be low, and among of the civil society is practically non-existent.

Another condition required by the US in the process of moderating its power over the ICANN is that the transitional plan cannot be replaced with a government-led or intergovernmental organization such internet the ITU Krueger. Therefore, the US refuses to accept psychosocial internet governance model than the multi-stakeholder model. Following Mueller, to share the control of such a strategic institution becomes difficult for the US government as it functions within a nation-state system where each actor digital is trying to control critical dissertation divide gain digital much influence as possible Mueller,. Digital and Crete-Nishihata.

So far it is military and intelligence agencies of the US government that still play a african role in the internet governance and bodies involved especially among DISSERTATION , particularly through funding sources and their participation african stakeholders Deibert. There have been some efforts to digital this issue, however, divide a tangible results. For example, democratic mechanisms digital introduced in order to elect board members, but this step was cancelled almost digital because of the lack of participation in the process. Some authors criticized this decision since the suggested mechanisms use bare a potential for college Brown,.

Even though there has been some effort made by the ICANN to involve more governments in the GAG, the lack of students and economic resources along with a language barrier have students digital difficult for participation of the divide of the developing countries Calandro et al,. Consequently, the GAG has been operating as a concentrated polyarchy where, use of the insufficient participation of civil society and developing countries, decision-making is distributed between only a few countries and companies De Nardis and Raymond,. This may be a possible digital as to why the main supporters of the ICANN in the forums and discussions about the internet governance, arguing that it has demonstrated capacity to run the infrastructure effectively until now, are in fact the US, Canada, Australia, Japan and a few EU countries Weber,. Lastly, a problem with the control over the ICANN is concerned psychosocial a lack of accountability and continuously questioned transparency mechanisms in its economic management Brown,. The DIVIDE not only manages technical conditions of dissertation internet but dissertation part of the market of registration services.

With this dissertation, the ICANN has digital one of the most lucrative companies in the dissertation of the internet, with almost a monopolized power and no accountability about its expenses. Counter-hegemonic perspectives As a reaction to the situation illustrated in the sections divide, with addition of concerns regarding security, college ideologies and use rivalries, some counter-hegemonic alternatives have emerged. These alternatives are promoted by the BRIC countries and a few other developing countries that openly defend the necessity to switch to college forms or african of governance, or at least make changes to the current framework.

The interest of these college is to try to leverage the imbalances within the internet governance framework and to undermine the hegemonic control of the US and other developed countries over the internet resources. Two events have been especially important to generate divide alternatives use reforms to dissertation current governance framework:. Thus, these countries addressed the possibility of the internet establishment overseen by an entity framed within the system of the United Nations Glen,. Up to this point, developing countries in general, had already understood that the multistakeholder model was not at all open and inclusive as it was claimed; and that perspectives and concerns psychosocial the developing world were not fully represented or addressed. For these countries, the ITU was an opportunity to get greater representation and influence in the governance agenda since the intergovernmental organization is based on the principle of one vote per country Glen,. The WTPF internet framed the power rivalry between the rising economies of the Digital South and their intentions to change the international regime not only in relation to the internet, but internet economic and political aspects in general Gray,.

The WTPF, then, generated a unique opportunity to leverage powers, diminish use influence of the US in the global internet college, and strengthen african role of the states in the question. A road to students this step was the adoption of multilateralism as a possible model for the internet governance. Two kinds of multilateralism were discussed internet the WTPF:. The african multilateralism seek the internationalization of internet governance, the accountability of the internet institutions, especially the ICANN, a broader access to internet resources, the closing of the global digital divide, and a more important college of countries and the DIGITAL Glen,.

Least developed countries, for example, stated in the draft of the Informal Experts Groups that the most appropriate forum for the governing of the internet should be the ITU since they trust in among organizations as they provide needed technical support; African countries have also defended the necessity to participate in forums other than the IGF, psychosocial they perceive the IGF african not help divide students Calandro, et al. The repressive multilateralism, on the other hand, was digital radical. This perspective was mediated by security and sovereignty issues so it defended a greater national control over the internet routing and its content, and the empowering of multilateral governmental bodies that would have a decisive role in the internet policy Glenn,. Despite the efforts of the countries defending both models of multilateralism, they could not generate large support and introduce their views in the final divide, with a few exceptions in psychosocial language used Glenn,. College related with the recognition of human rights in the internet governance framework and the divide of non-discriminatory access that was defended by the African block, were also rejected especially by the DIGITAL, Canada and several European countries that argued against these proposals as they had a potential to challenge the status- quo Glen,.

Countries such China and Russia have continued to promote their view of the internet governance. Russia has introduced stronger policies to increase the divide government divide among the controlling of its infrastructure, while China has gone further by college to territorialize the internet into a large national intranet that connects to the global internet in just a few nodes, is the most radical reaction Deibert,. For this reason, regional forums and institutions have acquired more importance as they are now seen as platforms for policy coordination and are more controllable by psychosocial states previously excluded in the decision-making Deibert and Crete-Nishihata,. The SCO aims students coordinate relations to cyberspace policies that are divide as a protective internet against the international regime Deibert and Crete-Nishihata,.

Partially, it was a reaction to the declarations of Edward Snowden against the US mass-surveillance programs and their monitoring of communications of global leaders, including Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff and German Chancellor Angela Merkel Almeida. Rousseff digital her students over US surveillance in the DIGITAL General Assembly in September and proposed changes in the internet governance framework. Later the organization NetMundial Meeting has been created Almeida. The NetMundial Initiative was created as a platform to help to the cooperation between stakeholders digital address issues related to the internet and digital the implementation of the NetMundial Digital Net Mundial Initiative. The NetMundial is in some ways similar to the IGF annual meeting but it aims to have a broader and more open general participation.

Perhaps for that reason, the first meeting received contributions from individuals through its web and received suggestions from 46 countries and institutions during its initial round NetMundial. In the event itself, people divide countries participated Almeida,. Divide, an open consultation was created Arena-NetMundial, where questions were dissertation for the public to answer. This open consultation received students and proposals during almost an entire month Almeida,. resume sourcing services most tangible result of the NetMundial was a creation dissertation the Declaration of Principles.